Fig. 3

Forest plot assessing each metric of cerebrovascular function. From (a) and (b), the negative effect sizes of CVR [MSD = − 1.86 (95% CI − 2.80, − 0.92)] and cerebral blood flow [SMD = − 2.26 (95% CI − 4.16, − 0.35)], respectively, indicate a reduction in cerebrovascular functions in individuals with cerebral large artery and small vessel diseases compared to their control group with no vascular disease. Conversely, (c) and (d) respectively show positive effect sizes of blood pressure [MSD = 0.32 (95% CI 0.18, 0.46)] and arterial stiffness [MSD = 0.87 (95% CI 0.77, 0.98)] indicating an increase in these metrics, which signify poor cerebrovascular functions. Forest plot for subgroup analysis. CVR metrics significantly reduced in individuals with with cerebral large artery and small vessel diseases compared to the control group without vascular disease. Whiles, blood pressure and flow were elevated but this increase was insignificantly observed between the two groups. There were significant declines in cerebrovascular functions specifically noted in individuals with cerebral large artery disease (SMD= − 2.09 [95% CI − 3.57, − 0.62]